Tribal site in Chattisgarh

With over 70% of total population encompassing of tribes, Bastar is the most prominent and largest tribal district of Chhattisgarh. The tribals of Bastar are about 26.76% of the total tribal population of Chhattisgarh.
Chhattisgarh is home to several racial groups with Gonds of Bastar being the most leading in the midst of them. Other major tribes of Chhattisgarh region include the Baiga, Korba, Dhurvaa, Bison Horn Maria, Halbaa, Bhatra, Muria and Abhuj Maria tribes. Each tribal group of Chhattisgarh has its own idiosyncratic culture and traditions. Their lifestyles vary from each other and each ethnic group has their own costumes, customs, traditions, eating habits and even worship different form of god and goddess. Irrefutably, Chhattisgarh has a great vision for tribal tourism and is the most remarkable tribal destination in India.

Chatisgarh and its tribal format

Maria Menhirs Bastar
Introduction to Maria Menhirs, Bastar:
During your Tour to Bastar, besides visiting the various tourist attractions of the region, you could also set a date with the Tribal Culture in Bastar. As Bastar boasts of a significant tribal population, the tribal culture of this place would give you an insight into the varied tradition and culture of these people. One such place worth a visit is the Maria Menhirs, Bastar.
History of Maria Menhirs, Bastar:
Maria Menhirs in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India are monumental stones that are erected by the Maria tribe to show respect to the dead.
Description of Maria Menhirs, Bastar:
If you drive on the National Highway 16 towards the west of Jagdalpur, you would get to see the Maria Menhirs of Bastar. These monumental stones were set up by people belonging to the Maria tribe to honor the memory of the deceased persons. The size of these stones varies which is in tune with the social status of the deceased. There are some drawings on these stones that display objects and acts treasured by that person. It is a custom to drop a bit of chewing tobacco at the base of these menhirs as a mark of reverence to the departed soul.
So, if you want to see all these and more, plan a trip to Maria Menhirs, Bastar while you embark on your Tour to Bastar. It would definitely turn out to be an exciting trip that would stay etched in your mind for a long time to come.

The Indian civilization is one of the oldest in the world, the remnants of which you can still find in its primordial places. Travel to the tribal destinations in India and take an insight into the age-old culture and traditions that continues to persevere in its primeval surroundings.
Chhattisgarh is a must when we talk of tribal tours in India. Chhattisgarh is one of the most interesting tribal tourist destinations of not only India but the world.
Chhattisgarh has continually been identical with tribes and tribal culture. More than one third of the state population is of tribes, and the majority of them exist in the densely forested areas of the renowned Bastar region. Chhattisgarh is illustrious for its unrivaled picturesque splendor and distinctive & rich ethnic culture.
The tribes of Chhattisgarh follow unique lifestyles and have imposingly maintained their culture and traditions for ages. Chhattisgarh tenders a perfect destination for you, if you are hunting for a distinct tribal culture of India.

Tribal culture of Orissa

Tribal Culture of ORISSA
Orissa presents a true picture of modern times co-existing with rustic lifestyle. On one hand we have a developed urban city that has tall buildings, fast life and all amenities. On the other hand we see a stark contrast in the form of the tribal culture of Orissa. This vibrant and colorful side is making its mark in urban lifestyle as well in the form of enthusiastic folk dances, songs, art & craft, poems and tattoos.
The tribal culture of Orissa has acclimatized itself to many Hindu traditions of India. It has mixed those customs with its traditional practices and has given birth to an entirely new cultural lifestyle amongst the tribes. The main features of their culture are the vibrant songs and dances. Any occasion, be it a birth, death or marriage, has an elaborate song and dance performance. This is what adds happiness and liveliness in their harsh lives.
The tribal people of Orissa are strong, industrious and very hospitable in nature. They usually don’t intermingle with outsiders, since they are not too advanced and are quite shy. The men folk are engaged in activities like agriculture, hunting and fishing to earn a living. The tribal people live a life without any luxuries that the urban city provides and yet are content with it. The tribal culture is very simple and portrays a subtle side of Orissa.
The dressing and attire is very simple and sometimes borders around the bare minimum. Men usually wrap a piece of cloth around their waist and women wear long pieces of cloth wrapped around their body. Ornaments are an integral part of their attire and one finds tribal women adorned with armlets, bangles, necklaces, anklets, rings, etc. Both men and women like to tattoo their bodies and children as young as 5 years are found with tattoo marks on their bodies and faces.
The tribal culture of Orissa is also abundant is the celebration of festivals. Being God-fearing people, they worship numerous deities for their well-being. The festivals are celebrated with much excitement and happiness and the traditional rituals are closely followed in order to please the Gods. The most important festivals are Chaita Parab and Push Parab when the men folk go on hunting expeditions. The different customs and lifestyle is what makes the tribal culture truly distinctive and fascinating.

Tribals culture continues ....

MARRIAGE SYSTEM OF TRIBALS

Among the social institutions, marriage appears to be the most important one. It is practiced almost universally by the tribal people, the only exception being the Hos of Kolhan. The extreme cupidity of fathers of kolhan brides and their high sense of family dignity have made them to demand an unusually high price for the hands of their daughter in marriage.
Maiden aged 40 to 50 are a common sight in Kolhan villages. However, recently young man and women began to arrange for their own unions without the knowledge of their parents and went through the operations of mock capture of the bride. The father of the bride in such cases demanded a higher price but not with the hope receiving any payment.
The tribals of India have more advanced views regarding the age of marriage of the young people than their advanced neighbors. The practice has come under the influence of Hindu culture. Among the Gonds, Kulis and Bhumias in Orissa, child marriage was said to be common, because of the influence of Hindu culture.

This has yielded place to marriage of adults. The Souras, Koyas, Kondhs, Gadabas and Bondas of Koraput district marry at a fair age and infant marriages are unknown among them. The groom is generally older than the bride in the tribal area.
There is enough opportunity for the satisfaction of sex impulses outside marriage among the tribes of India. Pre-marital sexual chastity is not very rigidly insisted upon in a large number of tribes. Among the Murias of Madhya Pradesh, for instance, it is a custom on certain days of the week, for those boys and girls of dormitories who are prefects to spend the nights with each other and have sexual relations. Half a century ago each oraon bachelor had a sweet heart in the spinsters’ house. If the girl refused to accept a lover, she was cut of by the older girls who refused to dance with her till she accepted a paramour. Before marriage love affairs and even intimate relationships are permitted and widely practiced among the Bondas, Koyas, Gadabas and Soura women in Koraput region. Even after marriage on some festive post-marital laxity is also found among Hos and Oranos, during important festivals, when men and women freely indulge in sex relations. However, sex activity is not the only objective of marriage. Economic co-operation as found in the division of labour between husband and wife seems to be another important consideration for marital union among tribals.
The selection of mateis an important affair even in primitive tribal society. The rules of endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, preferential mating and prohibited degrees operative simultaneously and there by considerably restrict the freedom of choice. Among the koyas and kondhs marriage with the maternal uncles’ daughter is prevent and is preferred to marriage with others. However, among Bondas this custom is absent. Marriage within the clan and certain brother clan is strictly prohibited among the tribes in Orissa. Generally marriage also does not occur with in the same village. The ways and means of acquiring a mate in tribal society are varied and interesting eight important ways of acquiring a mate maybe listed for Indian tribes. They are:
1. Probationary Marriage.
2. Marriage by captures.
3. Marriage by trial.
4. Marriage by Service.
5. Marriage by Purchase.
6. Marriage by exchange.
7. Marriage by mutual consent and elopement.
8. Marriage by intrusion.
Marriage by purchase and marriage by service are accepted way of finding a bride. The amount of bride price varies according to the economic conditions of tribe. The Bhumias, Oraons, Saharas, Juangs, Santals,Hos, Nagas, Bhils and many other tribes pay for their brides as a general rule. A Kondha of Koraput who is not able to pay the bride price is asked to workunder the father-in-law’s house till his final payment.
Probationary marriage Marriages by trial and intrusion marriage are found in limited cases of tribes in India.
Marriages among the Bonda tribe are arranged in an extraordinary manner. About two months before Dashara festival each village Naik dig a hole of about 8 square and nine feet deep and roofed with logs and mud so arranged as to leave one small opening. In this all unmarried girls of the village have to sleep. Any youth desirous of matrimony joins them there a night and next morning leaves his brass bracelet with the girl of his choice. The pair after wards goes together to the girl’s people and explains matters. Ultimately with relatives on both the side, they repair to jungles, where a fire is lit and the girl applies it to the boy’s buttocks. If he cries out in pain the girl refuses him, but if he makes no sound the couple are considered to be man and wife. The system has the advantages of giving both parties a choice in the matter.
The marriage customs and rituals among the tribals are elaborate and vary from tribe to tribe. It affects the economics life of a person, who gets a wife, to a great extent. It is necessary to discuss in brief the marriage customs and rituals, which is generally found among the tribes.
The parents of the bridegroom initiate marriages amongst the Soura. They visit the girls parents bearing with them a present of a pot containing palm wine. The reason for their visit is not immediately made plain. However, sooner or later, the name of the girl is mentioned and she is informed by her parent of the proposal. If she consents, they accept the pot of wine and ceremonially drink it before several witnesses. After several such visits the bride price is finalized. The presentation of an arrow and its acceptance by the bride’s family is equivalent of an engagement. About a year after the engagement the bride is brought to the bridegroom’s house & made to the ancestors by a shah man.
Each tribal marriage is accompanied by a lot of feasting and dancing. These are done at Bridegroom’s house at his cost. Marriage of a tribal boy becomes very expensive as it becomes a source of exploration by the money lenders and land grabbers, who are ready to advance money to the tribals at the time of marriage and charge very high rate of interest.
MORTUARY CUSTOMS
Among the Bauris the dead are either burnt or buried. The corpse is borne in the hands, or on a bier, by four men. Soon after the village boundary is crossed, the widow of the deceased throws rice over the eyes of corpse, and also a little fire, after taking it three times round.
Among the Bhumias the dead are burnt and pollution lasts for nine days. On the tenth day a ceremonial bath is taken and a feast with copious supplies of liquor is held.
The Bhottadas burn their dead and observe pollution for ten days during which no agricultural work is done and no food is cooked in the Vasma if the deceased which is fed by some relatives. On the tenth day on which bath is taken some fried rice and new pot are carried to the burning round and left there.
Among Chitra-Ghasis the dead are burnt and death pollution is observed for three days during which the caste occupation is not carried on. On the third day the ashes are collected together and a fowl is killed. The ashes are then buried or thrown into running water.
When a Koya dies, a cow or bullock is slaughtered, and the tail is cut off and put in the dead man’s hand. The liver is said to be put in his mouth. It is customary among the more prosperous families to put a few rupees into the mouth of a corpse before the funeral pyre is lighted. The money is made to represent the value of the animal sacrificed.
Among the Gadava males, as a rule are burnt but if a person dies in the night or on a rainy day, the corpse is sometimes buried. Women and children are usually buried presumably because they are not thought worth the fuel necessary for cremation. Only relations are permitted touch a corpse. Death pollution is observed for three days, during which the caste occupations must not be engaged in. Stone slabs are erected to the memory of the dead, and sacrifices are offered to them now and again.
Saora death is an embarrassment, as every death in a family adds a new danger from the other world. But it is not a separation. After death the corpse is laid on its back across the mortar in the central room of the house and is covered with a cloth. Women carry the corpse out of the house and lay in on a plank of wood in the street outside. They remove most of the ornaments, bathe the body and comb the hair.
The Tribal Culture in Chattisgarh is quite vast and varied with its unique ways and means. The culture is has its own uniqueness. If you have an inclination towards knowing about various tribal cultures and their various ways and means, then Chattisgarh is the right place to be in and a study of the Tribal Culture in Chattisgarh would be quite interesting. If you want more insights about the Tribal Culture in Chattisgarh, India you can visit the Memory Pillars of Gamawada in Dantewada, Maria Menhirs in Bastar and Anthropological Museum in Bastar.
The well known tribes in Chhattisgarh are the Gond Tribe, Bhunjia Tribe, Baiga Tribe, Bisonhorn Maria Tribe, Parghi Tribe, Muria Tribe, Halba Tribe, Bhatra Tribe, Parja Tribe, Dhurvaa Tribe, Muriya Tribe, Dandami Mariya Tribe, Dorla Tribe, Dhanwar Tribe, Kol Tribe, Korwa Tribe, Rajgond Tribe, Kawar Tribe, Bhaiyana Tribe, Binjwar Tribe, Savra Tribe, Manji Tribe, Bhayna Tribe, Kamar Tribe, Munda Tribe and Abujmaria Tribe.
To speak about the Tribal Culture in Chattisgarh, each of the tribes possesses its own rich history and culture. Their various forms of dance, music, dress and food are different from each other. The chief of a tribe is called the 'Sarpanch', who acts as the main advisor and mediator during disputes and other important matters. The Chief is is assisted by a team of 5 advisors, each of them called panch. The tribes tremendously respect their Sarpanch and the 5 Panchs. The tribes have a lot of unity within them. Marriages usually take place within the tribe. The dead are either buried or cremated. Due to the expensive multi-day rituals in cremation, it is not very popular. But the important elders are always cremated.
Tribal Culture, Bastar Chattisgarh
Bastar, Chattisgarh, was once one of the largest districts in India, bigger even than the state of Kerala and countries like Israel and Belgium. Its early history is obscure - it is believed to have been established in the 11th century.
Historically, Bastar formed the buffer zone between Deccan in South India and the Rajput splinter-states of Central India. It did not impact and was not impacted by happenings outside. As such, it developed its own way of life and governance. The population, mostly tribal, was native to India long before the Aryans arrived (10,000 years ago!), and they still follow their traditional lifestyle.
The Indravati River is the largest and the most important river in Bastar. Pamer Chinta is its main tributary. Almost half of Bastar is under forest cover, and the region is full of dense jungles full of bamboo, sal, teak wood, sheesam and bija. High mountains, valleys, streams, waterfalls, natural caves, and natural parks abound.
There is plenty to see and do in Bastar and it is recommended that you spend at least 3 days here.
Bastar Dassera
As with the rest of India, Bastar celebrates Dassera. In fact, it is the region's most important festival, and all the tribes participate in the 10-day event. But Dassera in Bastar is different from anywhere else. Here, instead of rejoicing over the triumphant return of Lord Rama (the hero of the epic Ramayana) to Ayodhya after 14 years of exile, the tribals celebrate Dassera as a congregation of Devi Maoli (Bastar's native deity, revered as the “elder sister” of Devi Danteshwari, the family goddess of the ruling Kakatiya family), and all her sisters. Hundreds of priests bring flower-bedecked local deities to the Danteshwari temple in Jagdalpur, arriving with all pomp and show. Bastar Dassera is believed to have been started, in the 15th century, by Maharaj Purushottam Deo, the fourth Kakatiya ruler. This would make it a 500 year old festival.
Though the ruling family was Hindu and the festival has its roots in Hinduism, it has assimilated many tribal elements and is a perfect example of the unique amalgam of traditional Hinduism and tribal traditions that make up the local culture.
Bastar Lokotsav
This fortnight-long tourism event, organized to coincide with Bastar Dassera , showcases the best of Bastar. It takes place every year after the monsoons, when the forests and waterfalls are at their best. Tribal handicrafts can be bought directly from artisans. A folk arts festival of tribal dances and music, Bastar Parab, is organized in Jagdalpur.
The dates for Bastar Lokotsav are according to the Hindu (Lunar) calendar, which means the date is not fixed as per the Gregorian calendar. In 2006, it will be held from September 23 to October 7.
Madai Festival
This tribal festival is celebrated by the tribes of Kanker and Bastar regions, to worship the local God(dess). The God(dess) is taken all through the Kanker, Bastar and Dantewada regions from December to March each year. In December, celebrations start in Bastar to honour the goddess Kesharpal Kesharpalin Devi. In January, the people of Kanker, Charama and Kurna celebrate the festival. In February the festival goes back to Bastar and Cheri-Chher-Kin is honoured this time. Towards the end of February, the festival goes to Antagarh, Narayanpur and Bhanupratappur. In March it goes to Kondagaon, Keshkal and Bhopalpattanam. It is held in a big ground, so that thousands of people can attend the ceremony, which starts with a procession of the local God(dess), followed by worship of the same, culminating in cultural programs, dancing and lots of good food. And, you always thought Christmas was the longest week of celebrations.
Hareli
Celebrated in the month of 'Shravan', Hareli is a symbol of aricultural properity. Farmers worship farm tools and cows on this occasion. They place branches and leaves of 'Bhelwa' (a tree resembling cashew tree) in the fields and pray for good harvest. People also hang small Neem branches at the main entrance of houses on this occasion to prevent occurrence of seasonal diseases.
Pola
Pola follows Hareli. It is celebrated by worshipping bullocks. Children play with idols of Nandi bull (the vehicle of Lord Shiva) made of clay and fitted with clay wheels. A bull race is a major event of the festival.
Tribal Culture / Tribal Crafts The tribals of Chhattisgarh, in particular, those of Bastar, are skilled at making a wide range of exquisite handicrafts. Be sure to pick up some of them for souvenirs. While you can buy crafts from government emporia, the best place to shop for them is at a haat bazaar (weekly market) where you can buy directly from the artisans. Look out for Bamboo Crafts, Bell Metal Work, Fiber Hangings, Kosa Fabric, Terracotta items, Wood Crafts, Tribal Jewellry and ingeniously handcrafted Wrought Iron work.
Haat Bazaar
Haat Bazaar is the weekly market in rural areas. rural areas. It's colourful, friendly and fun! Villagers gather her to socialize over a cup of landa (rice beer), salphi (the sap of fish-leaf sago-palm) or mahua ( the local brew, very heady ); sell their (agricultural or forest) produce, from salt to tribal jewellery to live red ants; and buy supplies for the week ahead. Visiting a haat is highly recommended, for a memorable peek into tribal life and a glimpse of commerce at its most primary stage (you can see barter deals taking place). It might interest you to know that the raw material for many fancy products come from here (for example, Bastar sal butter is an ingredient in many international chocolate brands). There are more than 200 haats in Chhattisgarh.

Travel Jagdalpur, Chattisgarh

Historically the family of the late Maharajadhiraj Udai Pratep Deo has opened part of their private residence to visitors where two of his sons will welcome you with warm hospitality. Relax in the pleasant palace grounds or visit the picturesque and historic town nestled on the River Dudh which is dotted with monuments.
Kanger Valley National Park: Enjoy a day trip to Kanger Valley National Park, 27 km from Jagdalpur. The rich SAL and TEAK forests retain the original intensity of the forests that once covered the entire region and contain within them an abundant variety of fauna and flora, and forest tribal people in their natural habitat. Visit the enchanting Tiratgarh waterfall and the extraordinary stalactite and stalagmite formations in the Kutumsar and Kailash caves.
Jagdalpur, the headquarters of Bastar district and entire Bastar division, is a small and developing town with all facilities. The area of th

e town is 8.50 sq. km. and the area of the Jagdalpur urban including the Jagdalpur town is 23.75 sq. km. The Jagdalpur urban area not only includes Jagdalpur town but also includes the areas Frijarpur, Hotakachor, Sargipal and Dharampura which are the outgrowth areas of Jagdalpur town. All the higher education institutions such as Arts & Science Colleges, P.G College, Engineering & Polytechnic Colleges, Hostels etc and Anthropological Museum are located in Dharampura.
Jagdalpur is one of most beautiful towns of the country. Jagdalpur is rich in greenery, with big trees everywhere, and plantations surrounding the town providing a pleasant and healthy atmosphere and free from pollution. Because of this the temperature even in peak summer is moderate which is a key attraction of Jagdalpur.It has a mixed culture of people pertaining to different states such as Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, Punjab and etc. Most of them are settled as business men and as government servants. Jagdalpur is one of the few towns in India where people of different religion, caste and culture are living in peace and harmony. The places worth seeing in the town are Gole Bazar during night hours and during Dusshera and Diwali festival seasons & Kumhara Para area where all types of handicraft items made by the skilled hands of Bastar tribes are available.
Filled with lush green mountains, deep valleys, dense forests, streams, waterfalls, caves, natural parks, magnificent monuments, rich natural resources, magic herbs, exuberant festivity and blissful solitude, Bastar, the very name spells magic, conjuring up images of the royal past and the tribes.
Jagdalpur, headquarters of Bastar District, is a developing town including the areas, Frijarpur, Hotakachor, Sargipal and Dharampura, less than 24 km in area. Having a mixed culture of various states, the city has people of different religions and castes living together in peace and harmony. The population is over a hundred thousand. The main attractions of the place are temples, waterfalls, a museum, palace and tribal handicraft.
Chitrakote Waterfall, about 40 km from Jagdalpur, is nestled in the mountain rages of Vindhya. Tiratgarh Waterfalls, 38 km from the city, cascades 100 m down to the river Mugabahar in rainbow resplendence. Other cataracts in the region are Mandra Waterfalls, Chitradhara at Potanar, Tamada, and Dhoomar at Lohandiguda. Kutumsar and kailash Caves, Dandak, Kanger Karpan and Devgiri are all natural caves in the region. The Kanger Valley National Park, with its wealth of myriad wildlife, is situated on the banks of river Kholaba which is about 27km from Jagdalpur. Another park on the banks of the Indravati River is the Indravati National Park. The Bhairamgarh Sanctuary is famous for spotted deer.
The ancient Danteshwari Temple situated near Gole Bazaar, the main shopping area, is rich in architectural and sculptural wealth. Another holy site is the Sri Venkateshwara Swamy temple. Other important tourist attractions are the Jagdalpur palace built by Bastar kings, and the Anthropological Museum at Dharmapura. The city is also rich in handicraft products made by the tribal, such as wooden and bamboo crafts, terracota, bell metal and wrought iron curios, cotton fabrics (Kosa saree) and various paintings. The city provides transportation facilities by road and rail.

Head less Goddess

HEADLESS GODDESS OF NUAPADA–ORISSA
(A STUDY OF ITS ANTIQUITY AND IDENTITY)

The present paper deals with the Headless Goddess, discovered recently in the Nuapada district of Orissa State. (Eastern-India). Prior to this, there have been well documented researches on the intriguing Headless Goddess or often-called Lajja-Gauri, hitherto reported from Western India, Southern and Central India. The present finding of Headless Goddess carved on a limestone plaque, is first of its kind in Eastern India.

Nuapada region lies in 82.32 E. and 20.49 N. Latitude of Orissa State (Eastern India). The land is clad with lofty mountains and valley. However, it now witnesses drought and famine in view of scanty rainfall. There is evidence of a continuum of Civilization and Culture in Nuapada from the early time up to the early medieval period. The territory formed eastern part of South-Kosala in the ancient and the medieval history of India. There developed an urban culture in Maraguda valley of Nuapada at least towards the early Christian period. Maraguda served as the capital of the Saravapuriya dynasty (6th-7th Cent. A. D.). The Chinese pilgrim Hieun -Tsang visited the capital during the 7th Cent. A.D. and has left a graphic account of it. The land, moreover, boosted of a strong tradition of mother Goddess worship. Mahisamardini Durga icon, Sakti Peetha, Durga temple with goddess in Situ and Yoni stone etc. are some of the Sakta-Tantric relics unearthed in Nuapada region.

Further finding of the Bhudevi icon, modeled in a crossed legged posture, in Maraguda Valley, is not only unique but also substantiate the tradition of Mother Goddess worship in the concerned land. There is the representation of a tree on the head of Bhudevi, thereby providing the clue that, it is the deity of vegetative fertility6. Among the other relics, pertaining to the worship of Mother Goddess and deity of vegetative fertility in Nuapada land, however, there are two such Headless Goddesses carved on limestone plaque, very often designated as Lajja-Gauri, which offers a fascinating challenge to the connoisseurs of Art and Indologist.

FIND SPOT—Recently, two limestone plaques have been unearthed in Nuapada district. Plaque No. I is arrested while excavating the plinth area of Komna Panchayat College building of Nuapada, while plaque No. II was discovered by Mr. J. P. Singh Deo from the Kotipadar village, which is about 10 kms. from Khariar Subdivision of Nuapada.

ICONOGRAPHY OF THE GODDESSES
Plaque No. I–Headless Goddess is carved on a limestone plaque measuring 10 CM. X 11 CM. On stylistic ground, it can be assigned to the 8th Cent. A.D. The motif, however, is considerably injured. The deity in nude and headless. It is carved in quatting position with outstretched legs, the common posture of female during childbirth. While fashioning the figurine, attempt is made to show anatomical details. Pendent breast, navel and vulva etc. are indicative of its blooming youth and also a pointer to the fertility aspect. Legs are shaped in outstretched posture as far as possible to expose the vulva region. Even the right foot is placed on a raised platform to meet this objective. There is a design, which seems to be a wrinkling of skin or fold of garment on either thigh of the motif. While the navel is faintly visible, the abdomen of the deity is partially chopped off. Below the navel, the folding of skin is discemed which betokens a sense of woman-hood. The vulva region is carefully carved. Probably the artist had shown the clitoris, which is, however, illegible at present. The motif, as cited already, is carved in a squatting position, within a shallow pedestal. But sufficient care was taken to exhibit its genital prominently. The motif is two handed. Both the arms are, however, broken. The most striking aspect of the deity is that it is headless. Instead of the head, lotus leaves with stems are delineated on the neck, as if it is flowering from it. The neck portion of the image is obliterated. Some lotus leaves along with elongated stems are also discerned on the right side of the shoulder as if they emerge from the neck and bend to the right. Thus, upper part of the figurine adorned with vegetation, unfolds a vegetative and fecundity aspects of the figurine (Figure 1). Natural and unornamented, the figurine does, not only reveals its fertility and vegetative feature but also demonstrates a stark sexuality about it.

Plaque No. II–Headless Goddess measures 11 CM. X 12 CM. This motif is also carved in squatting position on a pedestal. Unlike its counterpart (plaque No. I), it is
characterized by a round and polish body. Plaque No. II, Headless Goddess, therefore, may be ascribed to the later part of the 8th or 9th Cent. A.D. The figurine, moreover, wears a cloth (typical of jama), which covers the lower part of the body up to the ankle and loiters on the pedestal. Fold of garment is marked on either thighs or ankles. The feet are shaped flat along with the fingers. The navel is prominently shown. Winkles of skin on either side just below the breast is carefully fashioned to give an aesthetic sense to the motif. Bulbous bosom and heavy hips of the motif indicate its fertility aspect. Unlike plaque No. I, Headless Goddess, the lower part of the body of this motif is wrapped with garment (jama). The motif, moreover, is two handed which are shaped in up-right posture. In its right hand, she holds a lotus-bud having an elongated stem, while the object upheld in left hand is completely mutilated. Annulated design, indicating armlet is carved on either arm or elbow of the goddess. There is a punching mark around the neck of the deity, which seems to represent the necklace. It is also a Goddess without an anthropomorphic head. As a substitute of head, a full-blown lotus is exhibited on the shoulder, in the shape of efflorescence from the neck. Fluted petals of the lotus are meticulously carved. The goddess may be thus called “Lotus Headed“and it too reveals the same vegetative and fertility aspect of the Deity (Fig. II). Indeed, plaque No. II, Headless Goddess is a beautiful workmanship of the artist. Composition of the different parts of the figurine is cohesive and well integrated. It is ornamented, which show the taste of medieval finery of Orrisa. Two figurines of Headless Goddesses of Nuapada, Orrisa, however, demonstrate the artist’s mastery on form and conception. The posture of the motifs appears natural. Their body movement is vivacious and elastic. The composition is coherent and it produces a felling of indivisible wholeness of unity, where the artist, art form, and art object remain within an inseparable bond. Both the motifs, however, are associated with vegetative fertility and sex, but deviation is also, marked in the delineation of these figurines. Whereas plaque No. I, Headless Goddess is fashioned in stark nudity with prominent vulva, which is the common feature of Headless Goddess or Lajja-Gauri, plaque No. II, headless deity is different in this respect. In later case, garment is provided to cover the vulva region. Sexuality and fertility aspect is only marked from the outstretched leg posture, heavy hips and open bosons of the Goddess. To show its vegetative trait Lotus flower/ Medallion is delineated on its neck. Whereas, in former plaque No. I instead of lotus flower, lotus petals are seen to issues out of its neck. This particular trait is rarely found in the iconography of Lajja-Gauri discovered until now from other parts of India.

ANTIQUITY AND IDENTITY OF THE GODDESSES
Fertility Goddesses were widely popular in the ancient world. This reveals the veneration of maternity as a divine principle. Usually, such fertility goddesses were modeled as headless. The primary emphasis was given in fashioning the breast, navel and the vulva regions7. In Indian perspective, however, Headless Goddess does not occupy an exalted position among the pantheon of Hindu deities8. There is also no standardized iconographic text on this subject matter. Consequently, confusion arises in the sphere of satisfactory identification of the Goddess. Also, no all-inclusive explanation has yet been made pertaining to the origin and development of Headless Goddess in India. Hitherto, Indologists have been identified the said image as “Aditi Uttanapada-9”, “Lajja-Gauri” or Shameless woman10. Hosts of scholar of both East and West have accepted the 56.


OHRJ, Vol. XLVII, No. 2

denomination—Lajja-Gauri, ascribed to this headless deity. Still identification from other angle has been postulated. In view of the exhibition of the vulva region, she has been categorized as, personified Yoni type of fertility figurine. The sporting of vegetation from the throat impel Scholars to identify her as; Sakambari. Marshall, however, has identified the lotus head figure as, Prithivi, while others saw an affirnity with the nude folk Goddess, Kotavi, and with, Mahanagni, Hunter further coined the nomenclature ‘Nagnakavandh’, for the Headless goddess. Scholars have also advocated pre-historic origin of the figurine. Sankalia advanced indigenous Chalcolithic origin after the Inamgaon excavation. R. C. Dhere however went a step further in elucidating the folk tradition and textual evidences, to point out the origin and development of so-called Lajja-Gauri or Headless Goddess. Headless Goddess, therefore, still remains a riddle. Riddle becomes more acute with the discovery of more and more such icons from different parts of India.

The recent finding of two Limestone plaques of Headless Goddess from Nuapada area of Orrisa (Eastern India) however differs from each other in their treatment of details. But the most common characteristics of these figurines as also discern in other examples, are Heedlessness, outstretched leg postures (squatting position) and vegetative fertility or nourishment aspect. It, thus, seems to unfold some clue pertaining to the origin and development of the deity and thereby its identity.

Headlessness of divinity in Indian context is discerned at least since the protohistoric time as the case of fertility figurine recovered from Mohenjodaro and Inamgaon shows. Later on, in Brahmanical tradition also, Headless contour of divinity was fathomed. In this sphere, the story of Renuka (Wife of sage Jamadagni) is an illustration. The icon of Renuka has been worshipped as Matangi Devi and Yallamma and Prithvi etc. for procuring offspring by barren women today. Another glaring example in this sphere is Devi Chhirnamasta of Dasamahavidya. The Dhyana (Hymn) of Chhirnamasta depicts her iconography, thus, that she is headless, having two hands. In the right hand she holds dragger/discs, whereas in left hand, she carries severed head. (Chhirnamasta tatha chhirna chhirna mundavadharini etc). She is attended by two Sakhis (attendant) on either side. Three streams of blood issues out from her chopped off throat and fails into the mouth of the Sakhis. She is also portrayed as Digamvari (nude) which shows her sexual aspect. This fact is also highlited in her Dhyana (Hymn). In view of the nourshing feature, she has been also praised as “Jagat vaandhya jagatpuujya jagata prana parayani” Chhirnamasta of Hindu version may be equated with Vajra Yogini of Buddhist tradition. Consequently, the Vajra Yogini motif of the Buddhist Art seems to be the replica of the former. It seem that the various forms of mother goddesses (including the goddesses of Dasamahavidya) originally, belong to different folk culture and social sub-strata. But in between first century A.D. and ten century A.D. these goddesses were absorbed into the brahmanical religion and identified as a part of the universal mother goddess in Indian culture.

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In Parvati legend, thus, her sexual aspect, nourishing feature and Headlessness contour is commonly meet with. Analogous can be drawn in this respect from, ‘Sri’ and ‘Laksmi’ concept of Indian Art and literature. Sexual aspect of the earlier image of, ‘Sri’ is evinced in the ‘personified Yoni type’ figurine having squatting posture. Squatting posture, although is a prescribed position of woman during child birth as outlined in Charaka and Susruta Samhita, yet the said posture is also a prescribe posture of Kamasastriya Vandha (coitus). In fact, in Tribal culture of India, often outstretched leg posture of female is noticed. One such instance is a carving in Gotul or youth dormitory of the Muria tribe of Bastar region of Madhya Pradesh (Middle India). Youth dormitory of the tribal primarily rests on sexuality or sexual foreplay. The outstretched leg posture or semi-squatting position of the motif, thus, conveys the sense of Kama (Sexuality). At the same time sexuality correlates with fertility and fertility ritual or vice versa. Belief in the relation of sex and vegetative fertility is fathomed among the tribal of Eastern India like the Oraons, the Santals and the Mundas.

The village Goddess of fertility, embodies, very often the composite features of sex and fertility. As such, numerous female deities of fertility nature either in anthropomorphic shape or in aniconic features are commonly found in the peasant India. It reveals certainly the highest regard accorded to the women folk, who coalesced in her person sexuality and fertility, like copulation, conception and birth. The idea traversed into the Art tradition of India, where erotic Arts are found fuse with fertility. The cult of Goddess ‘Sri’, therefore, had direct bearing on sexuality and fertility (in our context nourishment feature). Literary text like Sankhayana Grihasutra also brings her profile as Goddess of sex and fertility. Srisukta of Rigveda further describes her as Arda. As such, she was reckoned as the guardian deity of the farmers. She thus embodies in herself vegetative fertility or nourishing aspect. Just before 1st century A.D., Goddess ‘Sri’ was assimilated with other Goddesses like Laksmi, Prthvi, Sasthi, Raka, Jaya and Sachi etc. By this time the cult of ‘Sri’ or Laksmi was also discerned in Buddhist culture. In Buddhist Art, Goddess ‘Sri’ alias Laksmi was usually fashioned in between two husks, who pours water on her head to keep her ‘Arda’, was also a personified yoni type figurine. Such type of motifs has been retrieved from the Buddhist Art Centres like Sanchi, Bharhut, Kosambi and Budhgaya etc.

Moreover, in the Jaiminiya Brahman, Goddess, ‘Sri’, identified with Laksmi has been equated with corn. Padma Purana and Visnudharmottara Purana also describe her as Lotus-headed. The lotus head aspect of Laksmi betokens her vegetative fertility character. At the same time, her headless contour, being devoid of anthropomorphized head is conspicuous. In this respect, Laksmi has been equated with Sakambari38 as one covered with vegetation as a substitute of head.

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Consequently, in the evolution of Durga-Parvati and Sri Laksmi concept the cardial traits like headlessness, amorous aspect and fertility/nourishment features are commonly met with. That in Brahmanical culture, although Durga-Parvati and Sri Laksmi appear distinct, yet very often, they are considered as one. It seems that Durga-Parvati and Sri Laksmi had their common source of origin. In this sphere, the fertility deity of Mohenjodaro and the Inamgaon headless clay figurine may be reiterated as being the forerunner of Durga-Parvati alias Sri Laksmi. It is heartening
to note further that the so-called Lajja-Gauri or headless Goddesses combines these
common characteristics of Durga-Parvati alias Sri Laksmi. Covertly, sometime the artist; therefore, to exemplify the Durga Laksmi traits in the person of headless goddess do delineate the cardinal emblems of the Saiva-Sakta and Vaisnava creeds. Some of the examples may be furnished in this context–that the Lajja-Gauri plaque discovered from padri40 (1st century A.D.) show Linga, Vrisava and Lion head by its side. Damaged plaques of Lajja-Gauri from Ter (Ter Museum) show the goddess as armless and lotus-headed. In this plaque, the Bull faces the linga on the right edge and the devotee and the Lions face are carved on the left edge. Similarly, the stone plaque of Lajja-Gauri excavated from Bhokandan (5th Cent. A. D.) and Majati (5th Cent. A. D.) exhibits conch (Vaisnavite emblem), the Linga, the Nandi and the Lions head (Saiva-Sakta features). In another Lajja-Gauri plaque of Ter example, conch is noticed besides the other emblems.

However, the Saivite affinity of the goddess is very suggestive from the allusions of Bull, Nandi and Linga in different categories of Lajja-Gauri plaque. But doubt arises in case of lion’s head. It has been interpreted as Kirttimukha, or vehicle of the goddess. But none of these interpretations appear satisfactory in view of the simple fact that in Narasimha Iconography (incarnation of Visnu), it is the head rather than the body that bears significance. The Lion head in some of the Lajja-Gauri image, therefore, most likely represents Narasimha-Visnu. Similarly, the conch is also an attribute of Vishnu, which can be further interpreted as symbol of water and thereby fertility, which also bears direct co-ordination with Laksmi, the goddess of fertility.

In addition to, in some other examples, Lajja-Gauri icon has been noticed amidst Saptamatrikas that further unfolds the fact that Lajja-Gauri also belongs to the family to which Saptamatrikas belong. Thus, the salient features of the above discussions are as follows :–

(1) That the Mother Goddess worship was wellknown from the beginning of Indus civilization and culture as the Mohenjodaro fertility goddess and Inamgaon clay figurine testifies. At least, from the 1st Cent. A. D., numerous Mother Goddesses including Durga-Parvati and Sri Laksmi etc. came to the forefront of the Brahmanical culture. Although these goddesses appear distinct at superficial level, yet all of them fuse together in one Universal Mother Goddess in reality.

(2) Chhirnamasta and Sakambari, other manifestations of the great Mother Goddesses, moreover, combines themselves the cardinal traits of Lajja-Gauri or Headless deity like–headlessness, sexuality fertility and nourishing aspect.

HEADLESS GODDESS VERSES DEVI SAKAMBARI
In our present context, however, it is the Goddess Sakambari whose iconography and iconology seems to tally well with the headless goddess or so-called Lajja-auri.
According to Laksmi Tantra, the blue coloured Sakambari manifested from the body of Parvati during the fourteenth cycle of Vaivaswata Mannantra. The Lotus head of the Goddess as already cited cognate the deity with Sri Laksmi.

Sanskrit literatures moreover, reveal the connection of Sakambari with vegetative fertility. Sakambari is known to have lived a ‘Thousand Divya’ (Divine) years only on vegetables. In Sri-Chandi portion of the Markandeya Purana, it has been pointed out that the worship of Sakambari, soon bestows all kinds of inexhaustible store of food and drink. In Devi Mahatmya, moreover, Sakambari declares to provide to the whole World including the Gods with nourishing vegetables produced from her body until the shower of rain. Consequently, Sakambari came to be worshipped in India at the time of drought and famine.

Sakambari Mahatmya, a section of Skanda Purana mentions the sacred place–Mahakuta as the original abode of Devi Sakambari Mahakuta region, identified with Badmi (Dist. Bijapur, Karnataka State) is full of archaeological ruins, where nude torso of female with all the characteristic attributes of so-called Lajja-Gauri is discovered. As such, nude torso seems to be the representation of Goddess Sakambari. Two headless Goddesses, carved on the limestone plaques of Nuapada, therefore, appear to be no other than Sakambari. The worship of such goddess in Nuapada region of Eastern India divulges the necessity–the necessity to ward off drought and famine, for which Sakambari stands.

ARID CLIMATE IN NUAPADA (ORISSA, EASTERN INDIA) AND INVOCATION OF HEADLESS GODDESS—SAKAMBARI
Environment plays a vital role in shaping human society and culture. Efflorescence of civilization and culture in Nuapada-Khariar region of Western Orissa in Early History as revealed by archaeology, shows that the Ecosystem in the concerned land was very congenial. There was, however, a marked decline of the climatic condition in the present Nuapada district at least from the 8th Cent. A. D., causing thereby drought and famine. Change of Ecosystem may be one of the potential factor of the decline and disintegration of the Maraguda Urban Centre of Nuapada during the 8th-9th Cent. A.D. The hypothesis receives substantial support when we investigate the environmental condition of India during aforesaid ages.

India suffered from arid climate during the post-Gupta period, literary sources like Vamana Purana (7th Cent. A.D.) and Dasakumara-Charitam of Dandini (8th Cent. A.D.) graphically refer to the harrowing details of famine in different parts of India. Even the Javanese Chronicles (7th Cent. A.D.) and the account of Arab traveller like Sulaiman (9th Cent. A.D.) present the picture of drought in India. These Literary references certainly testify to scanty rainfall in India that resulted into drought and famine in many parts of the land. Consequently, urban centres like Champa, Vaisali, Pataliputra and Varanasi etc. were deserted and liquidated.

Nuapada region of Orissa (Eastern India) had shared this common background. Agriculture usually suffers in the event of poor monsoon. To meet the natural calamity, however, artificial water reservoirs were harboured by the then farming community. Faint traces of a Dam on Zonk river of Nuapada popularly known, as Lac-bridge seems to be constructed for irrigational purpose at that time to combat against drought. The morta used to bind the stones of this bridge is reported to contain Dhup (Rasin), lac (Shellac) and Gud (Molasses).

The foregoing discussions indicate that the environmental change wrought at least
since 8th Cent. A.D. in Nuapada region, had certainly hit hard on the farming communities of the land. Under such predicament, besides creating artificial water reservoir, divine grace was also sought through the worship of goddess Sakambari (Headless deity). The present finding of two limestone plaques of Headless Goddess, could have been for the purpose of worship by the farmers of the concerned region in their respective home.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Shri J. P. Singh Deo of Khariar, Late P. K. Deo, Ex-Maharaja of Kalahandi and Dr. Pradeep Mohanty, Deptt. of Archaeology, Deccan College, Pune, who had rendered their help and assistance for preparing this paper.
References
Dr. Baba Mishra
P.-G. Department of History
Govt. Autonomous College
Bhawanipatna-76600
Dist. Kalahandi (Orissa)

Ghotul Tribals of Chattisgarh

Ghutul Dance Form

Muria Gond Tribe - Narayanpur tribal market – ‘Kanker District’

The dress of Maria women consists of a white skirt with the upper portion of the body being left bare; and the men wear loin cloths and turbans which are often adorned with long strings of beads wound several times around combs. At the weekly market on Sunday in Narayanpur near Jagdalpur you will discover some of Bastar's finest handicrafts and enjoy the opportunity to mingle with these tribal people.
GOTUL or Ghotul

Young boys and girls of Muria tribe, belonging to Bastar District Chattisgarh, use combs as a decorative item on their hairs. These carved combs are symbolic of the love and admiration that they receive.
On attaining adolescence, the girls and boys become the members of a dormitory called Ghotul. In this dormitory boys gift specially carved combs to the girls of their choice. These combs are carved by the boys themselves. The combs worn by the boys are bigger and more detailed in their carving and style. These combs are never exchanged.

A young woman wears all the combs that she received from her admirers and lovers in Ghotul. It is mandatory for the woman to remove the combs gradually after her marriage and return these combs to her former lovers and admirers. But she must not remove the combs given to her by her husband.
The motifs used on the doors, pillars and walls of the Ghotul and those found on the combs are related to the fertility cult of these tribal people. Commonly used images are fishes, birds, chameleons, horses and elephants. These combs are made from either roots or the soft stem of some particular plants. Tools like knife are used to give them shape.
Ghotul is a cultural center of Abujhmarias, Gonds and Murias in Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh. Lingo Pen, a phallic deity, is the founder of the Muria Ghotul. The objective of the Ghotuls is educating children, to develop qualities in them and for the selection of life partner. Students were tested for skills in leaf-weaving, vegetable-growing, ash-cleaning, and wood-carving. Sex education is also given in Ghotuls.
This institution is located outside the village. The Ghotul building is a small hut, a meeting hall or group of huts depending upon the village population and leadership. It is used as a meeting center of young males and females. Every male is called Chelick and female called Motiyari.
After sunset the male members arrive at the Ghotul with sleeping mats, tobacco-pouches and other things needed for the night stay. They chat, joke, and smoke around the camp fires. The females sing and dance. Mandri and flute accompany the music. The beat out of the drums indicate that the youth were preparing for the Ghotul.
At late night, Belosa, the leader of the girls and Sirdar, the leader of the boys decide how the couples shall be paired. The decision is as a romance mixed with duty and charm, get equal chances in the equality of romance.
Ghotul is a system of education prevalent among the tribes of central India. Ghotul is actually a type of dormitory, comprising of a large hut or group of hut enclosed in a compound, where the unmarried boys and girls interact with each other in a responsible manner. They are taught the right kind of social behavior. The boys and girls are often paired together, by which they get to know each other and learn to live in harmony. The system of Ghotul is practiced to impart a sense of social democracy right from a young age.
The male members of Ghotul are called as Chelik, while the female members are known as Motiari. The members salute each other in rhythmic manner called as Johar. The activities usually comprises of songs and dance routine held under the supervision of a leader. There are special dances performances by girls once a week. These activities help generate a feeling of friendliness, sympathy and unity among the members.

Comparison with Ghotul
This system of dormitory and typical activity of the young male and female before marriage is found in many region of world in the traditional old culture and belief. Among them in India the most popular is Zawlbuk.
Zawlbuk is the dormitory for the youth in a typical village in Mizoram. In case a village is big, the area is divided into smaller parts called as Veng, with each part having a Zawlbuk of its own. These dormitories form an important component in the culture of the people, helping to shape the youth into a responsible citizen of the society. A boy reaching the age of 15 is considered eligible to join the dormitory.


A Zawlbuk is made up of a large building with enough space for the youths to sleep. These youths are taught the art of wrestling, hunting and village governance. The training session is intensive and requires discipline. Apart from the basic skills in self-defense, a positive attitude toward life, along with the basic values is imparted on the young minds.
Apart from shaping the minds of the youths, Zawlbuk also serves as a rest house for the travelers and visitors to the village.